<?xml version="1.0" encoding="UTF-8"?>
<!DOCTYPE article PUBLIC "-//NLM//DTD JATS (Z39.96) Journal Publishing DTD v1.3 20210610//EN" "JATS-journalpublishing1-3.dtd">
<article article-type="research-article" dtd-version="1.3" xmlns:mml="http://www.w3.org/1998/Math/MathML" xmlns:xlink="http://www.w3.org/1999/xlink" xmlns:xsi="http://www.w3.org/2001/XMLSchema-instance" xml:lang="en"><front><journal-meta><journal-id journal-id-type="publisher-id">nnp</journal-id><journal-title-group><journal-title xml:lang="en">Neurology, Neuropsychiatry, Psychosomatics</journal-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Неврология, нейропсихиатрия, психосоматика</trans-title></trans-title-group></journal-title-group><issn pub-type="ppub">2074-2711</issn><issn pub-type="epub">2310-1342</issn><publisher><publisher-name>"IMA-Press", LLC</publisher-name></publisher></journal-meta><article-meta><article-id pub-id-type="doi">10.14412/2074-2711-2025-5-29-38</article-id><article-id custom-type="elpub" pub-id-type="custom">nnp-2697</article-id><article-categories><subj-group subj-group-type="heading"><subject>Research Article</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="en"><subject>ORIGINAL INVESTIGATIONS</subject></subj-group><subj-group subj-group-type="section-heading" xml:lang="ru"><subject>ОРИГИНАЛЬНЫЕ ИССЛЕДОВАНИЯ И МЕТОДИКИ</subject></subj-group></article-categories><title-group><article-title>The role of the gut microbiome in multiple sclerosis</article-title><trans-title-group xml:lang="ru"><trans-title>Роль микробиома кишечника при рассеянном склерозе</trans-title></trans-title-group></title-group><contrib-group><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0001-6665-8655</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Кожиева</surname><given-names>М. Х.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Kozhieva</surname><given-names>M. Kh.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>117513, Москва, ул. Островитянова, 1, стр. 10</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>1, Ostrovityanova St., Build. 10, Moscow 117997</p></bio><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-1"/></contrib><contrib contrib-type="author" corresp="yes"><contrib-id contrib-id-type="orcid">https://orcid.org/0000-0002-2975-4151</contrib-id><name-alternatives><name name-style="eastern" xml:lang="ru"><surname>Бойко</surname><given-names>А. Н.</given-names></name><name name-style="western" xml:lang="en"><surname>Boyko</surname><given-names>A. N.</given-names></name></name-alternatives><bio xml:lang="ru"><p>Алексей Николаевич Бойко, кафедра неврологии, нейрохирургии и медицинской генетики</p><p>117513, Москва, ул. Островитянова, 1, стр. 10</p><p>117513, Москва, ул. Островитянова, 1</p></bio><bio xml:lang="en"><p>Alexey Nikolaevich Boyko, Department of Neurology, Neurosurgery and Medical Genetics</p><p>1, Ostrovityanova St., Build. 10, Moscow 117997</p><p>1, Ostrovityanova St., Moscow 117997,</p></bio><email xlink:type="simple">boykoan13@gmail.com</email><xref ref-type="aff" rid="aff-2"/></contrib></contrib-group><aff-alternatives id="aff-1"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>ФГБУ «Федеральный центр мозга и нейротехнологий» ФМБА России</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>Federal Center for Brain and Neurotechnologies, FMBA of Russia</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><aff-alternatives id="aff-2"><aff xml:lang="ru"><institution>ФГБУ «Федеральный центр мозга и нейротехнологий» ФМБА России; ФГБОУ ВО «Российский национальный исследовательский медицинский университет им. Н.И. Пирогова» Минздрава России</institution><country>Россия</country></aff><aff xml:lang="en"><institution>Federal Center for Brain and Neurotechnologies, FMBA of Russia; N.I. Pirogov Russian National Research Medical University, Ministry of Health of Russia</institution><country>Russian Federation</country></aff></aff-alternatives><pub-date pub-type="collection"><year>2025</year></pub-date><pub-date pub-type="epub"><day>20</day><month>10</month><year>2025</year></pub-date><volume>17</volume><issue>5</issue><fpage>29</fpage><lpage>38</lpage><permissions><copyright-statement>Copyright &amp;#x00A9; Kozhieva M.K., Boyko A.N., 2025</copyright-statement><copyright-year>2025</copyright-year><copyright-holder xml:lang="ru">Кожиева М.Х., Бойко А.Н.</copyright-holder><copyright-holder xml:lang="en">Kozhieva M.K., Boyko A.N.</copyright-holder><license xml:lang="ru" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>Данная работа распространяется под лицензией Creative Commons Attribution 4.0.</license-p></license><license xml:lang="en" license-type="creative-commons-attribution" xlink:href="https://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/4.0/" xlink:type="simple"><license-p>This work is licensed under a Creative Commons Attribution 4.0 License.</license-p></license></permissions><self-uri xlink:href="https://nnp.ima-press.net/nnp/article/view/2697">https://nnp.ima-press.net/nnp/article/view/2697</self-uri><abstract><sec><title>Objective</title><p>Objective: to study the role of the human gut microbiome in the mechanisms of multiple sclerosis (MS) development and in the formation of response to immunomodulatory therapy.</p></sec><sec><title>Material and methods</title><p>Material and methods. The study included 100 people – 80 patients with MS, 65 of whom had relapsing-remitting MS (RRMS) and 15 had primary-progressive MS (PPMS), all before being prescribed glucocorticoid therapy, as well as 20 healthy people of the same age. The gut microbiome was studied using 16S rRNA gene analysis. The influence of gender, duration and severity of MS, therapy received, the presence of a risk factor for MS exacerbation (smoking), and the presence of a predisposing factor in the genotype (DR2(15) haplotype) were assessed.</p></sec><sec><title>Results</title><p>Results. For MS, regardless of gender, disease duration, type of course, treatment received, and other clinical and demographic characteristics, there is generally an increase in the content of rare forms of bacteria of the Verrucomicrobia type and related classes, orders, and families, as well as a decrease in the level of butyrate-producing bacteria of the genus Roseburia, which has an anti-inflammatory effect. The microbiome of male MS patients is more enriched with microorganisms, as in women in the control group, which can be regarded as one of the compensatory anti-inflammatory mechanisms that reduce the spread of MS in men. In cases of short-term MS, the gut microbiome was dominated by bacteria of the classes Erysipelotrichia, Verrucomicrobiae and Deltaproteobacteria, with the latter two being characteristic of all types of MS, indicating their role in the formation of a predisposition to MS; As the duration of MS increased, the content of bacteria of the genus Phascolarctobacterium increased, while the decrease in the level of bacteria of the genus Roseburia and OTU_825 (Roseburia_intestinalis), typical for MS, did not depend on the duration of MS. As the severity of MS increased on the EDSS scale, a predominance of rare forms of the class Verrucomicrobiae, family Verrucomicrobiaceae, was noted. In severe patients with EDSS ≥4.5 points, a predominance of bacteria of the class unc_Bacteroidetes was noted. In PPMS, as a more unfavourable type of MS course, the levels of bacteria of the Desulfovibrionaceae fam- ily, Akkermansia genus and OTU_30 (Akkermansia_muciniphila) were significantly increased (both compared to PPMS and compared to the control), and the level of OTU_825 (Roseburia_intestinalis) are significantly increased (compared to both PPMS and the control group), while the level of OTU_825 (Roseburia_intestinalis) is even lower than in typical relapsing MS, indicating a more unfavourable course of MS with a predominance of the neurodegenerative process.</p><p>During exacerbation of PPMS, a statistically significant increase in the presence of Proteobacteria and other classes, families and genera of bacteria associated with inflammation, indicating the involvement of the microbiome not only in the formation of predisposition, but also in a short-term increase in the activity of autoimmune inflammation, leading to an exacerbation of the pathological process in brain tissue.</p><p>Many differences between the gut microbiome of MS patients and that of the control group were most significant in the group of smokers. An increase in the presence of Verrucomicrobiaceae bacteria in the gut microbiome in MS was most noticeable in carriers of the HLA-DRB1-2(15) genetic marker, which increases the risk of developing MS.</p><p>High-dose IFN therapy may alter the composition of the gut microbiome, possibly due to the growth of anti-inflammatory microbiome, partic- ularly Holdemanella and Megasphaera, as well as butyrate-producing bacteria OTU_33 (unc_Lachnospiraceae).</p></sec><sec><title>Conclusion</title><p>Conclusion. The gut microbiome plays an important role in shaping the course and response to treatment in MS.</p></sec></abstract><trans-abstract xml:lang="ru"><p>Изучение иммунорегуляторной роли микробиома кишечника при аутоиммунных заболеваниях является актуальной задачей современной медицины.</p><p>Цель исследования – изучить роль микробиома кишечника человека в механизмах развития рассеянного склероза (РС) и в формировании ответа на иммуномодулирующую терапию.</p><sec><title>Материал и методы</title><p>Материал и методы. В исследование включено 100 человек – 80 пациентов с РС, из них 65 – с ремиттирующим РС (РРС) и 15 – с первично-прогрессирующим РС (ППРС), все до назначения глюкокортикоидной терапии, а также 20 здоровых людей того же возраста. Микробиом кишечника исследован с помощью анализа гена 16S рРНК. Оценивали влияние пола, длительности и тяжести РС, получаемой терапии, наличия фактора риска утяжеления РС – курения, наличие в генотипе фактора предрасположенности – гаптотипа DR2(15).</p></sec><sec><title>Результаты</title><p>Результаты. Для РС, независимо от пола, длительности заболевания, типа течения, получаемого лечения и других клинико-демографических характеристик, в целом характерно повышение содержания редких форм бактерий типа Verrucomicrobia и соответствующих классов, порядков и семейств, а также снижение уровня бутиратпродуцирующей бактерии рода Roseburia, обладающей противовоспалительным эффектом. Микробиом больных РС мужского пола более обогащен микроорганизмами, как и у женщин в контроле, что можно расценивать как один из компенсаторных противовоспалительных механизмов, снижающих распространение РС у мужчин. При небольшой длительности РС в микробиоме кишечника преобладали бактерии классов Erysipelotrichia, Verrucomicrobiae и Deltaproteobacteria, причем последние два характерны для всех типов РС, что указывает на их роль в формировании предрасположенности к РС; при нарастании длительности РС повышалось содержание бактерий рода Phascolarctobacterium, а типичное для РС снижение уровня бактерий рода Roseburia и OTU_825 (Roseburia_intestinalis) не зависило от длительности РС. При нарастании тяжести РС по шкале EDSS отмечено преобладание редких форм класса Verrucomicrobiae, семейства Verrucomicrobiaceae. У тяжелых больных с EDSS ≥4,5 балла отмечено преобладание бактерий класса unc_Bacteroidetes. При ППРС, как более неблагоприятном типе течения РС, значимо повышены (и по сравнению с РРС, и по сравнению с контролем) уровни бактерий семейства Desulfovibrionaceae, рода Akkermansia и OTU_30 (Akkermansia_muciniphila) и снижен уровень OTU_825 (Roseburia_intestinalis) – он еще ниже, чем при типичном ремиттирующем течении РС, что указывает на более неблагоприятное течение РС с преобладанием нейродегенеративного процесса.</p><p>При обострении РРС выявлено статистически значимое увеличение присутствия типа Proteobacteria и других классов, семейств и родов бактерий, свзязанных с воспалением, что указывает на участие микробиома не только в формировании предрасположенности, но и в кратковременном повышении активности аутоиммунного воспаления, что приводит к обострению патологического процесса в ткани мозга.</p><p>Многие отличия микробиома кишечника пациентов РС от такового представителей контрольной группы были наиболее значимы в группе курильщиков; повышение присутствия в микробиоме кишечника бактерий семейства Verrucomicrobiaceae при РС наиболее заметно у носителей генетического маркера HLA-DRB1-2(15), повышающего риск развития РС.</p><p>Терапия высокодозными бета-интерферонами может изменять состав микробиома кишечника, возможно, за счет роста микробиома с противоспалительнами свойствами, в частности родов Holdemanella и Megasphaera, а также бутиратпродуцирующих бактерий OTU_33 (unc_Lachnospiraceae).</p></sec><sec><title>Заключение</title><p>Заключение. Микробиом кишечника играет важную роль в формировании особенностей течения и ответа на терапию при РС.</p></sec></trans-abstract><kwd-group xml:lang="ru"><kwd>рассеянный склероз</kwd><kwd>микробиом кишечника</kwd><kwd>особенности течения</kwd><kwd>курение</kwd><kwd>ответ на терапию ПИТРС</kwd></kwd-group><kwd-group xml:lang="en"><kwd>multiple sclerosis</kwd><kwd>gut microbiome</kwd><kwd>disease characteristics</kwd><kwd>smoking</kwd><kwd>response to PITRS</kwd></kwd-group></article-meta></front><back><ref-list><title>References</title><ref id="cit1"><label>1</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ramagopalan SV, Dobson R, Meier UC, Giovannoni G. Multiple sclerosis: risk factors, prodromes, and potential causal pathways. Lancet Neurol. 2010 Jul;9(7):727-39. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70094-6</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Ramagopalan SV, Dobson R, Meier UC, Giovannoni G. Multiple sclerosis: risk factors, prodromes, and potential causal pathways. Lancet Neurol. 2010 Jul;9(7):727-39. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(10)70094-6</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit2"><label>2</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">HedstrЪm AK, Hillert J, Olsson T, Alfredsson L. Alcohol as a modifiable lifestyle factor affecting multiple sclerosis risk. JAMA Neurol. 2014 Mar;71(3):300-5. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.5858</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">HedstrЪm AK, Hillert J, Olsson T, Alfredsson L. Alcohol as a modifiable lifestyle factor affecting multiple sclerosis risk. JAMA Neurol. 2014 Mar;71(3):300-5. doi: 10.1001/jamaneurol.2013.5858</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit3"><label>3</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Arumugam M, Raes J, Pelletier E, et al. Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome. Nature. 2011 May 12;473(7346):174-80. doi: 10.1038/nature09944</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Arumugam M, Raes J, Pelletier E, et al. Enterotypes of the human gut microbiome. Nature. 2011 May 12;473(7346):174-80. doi: 10.1038/nature09944</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit4"><label>4</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Ситкин СИ, Ткаченко ЕИ, Вахитов ТЯ. Филометаболическое ядро микробиоты кишечника. Альманах клинической медицины. 2015;40:12-34.</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Sitkin SI, Tkachenko EI, Vakhitov TYa. The philometabolic core of the intestinal microbiota. Almanac of Clinical Medicine. 2015;40:12-34. (In Russ.)</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit5"><label>5</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Sekirov I, Russell SL, Antunes LC, Finlay BB. Gut microbiota in health and disease. Physiol Rev. 2010;90(3):859-904. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00045.2009</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Sekirov I, Russell SL, Antunes LC, Finlay BB. Gut microbiota in health and disease. Physiol Rev. 2010;90(3):859-904. doi: 10.1152/physrev.00045.2009</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit6"><label>6</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Qin J, Li R, Raes J, et al. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature. 2010;464(7285):59-65. doi: 10.1038/nature08821</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Qin J, Li R, Raes J, et al. A human gut microbial gene catalogue established by metagenomic sequencing. Nature. 2010;464(7285):59-65. doi: 10.1038/nature08821</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit7"><label>7</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Rajilic-Stojanovic M, de Vos WM. The first 1000 cultured species of the human gastrointestinal microbiota. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2014 Sep;38(5):996-1047. doi: 10.1111/1574-6976.12075</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Rajilic-Stojanovic M, de Vos WM. The first 1000 cultured species of the human gastrointestinal microbiota. FEMS Microbiol Rev. 2014 Sep;38(5):996-1047. doi: 10.1111/1574-6976.12075</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit8"><label>8</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Yatsunenko T, Rey FE, Manary MJ, et al. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature. 2012 May 9;486(7402):222-7. doi: 10.1038/nature11053</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Yatsunenko T, Rey FE, Manary MJ, et al. Human gut microbiome viewed across age and geography. Nature. 2012 May 9;486(7402):222-7. doi: 10.1038/nature11053</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit9"><label>9</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Schulze J, Sonnenborn U. Yeasts in the gut: from commensals to infectious agents. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2009 Dec;106(51-52):837-42. doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2009.0837</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Schulze J, Sonnenborn U. Yeasts in the gut: from commensals to infectious agents. Dtsch Arztebl Int. 2009 Dec;106(51-52):837-42. doi: 10.3238/arztebl.2009.0837</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit10"><label>10</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Reyes A, Haynes M, Hanson N, et al. Viruses in the faecal microbiota of monozygotic twins and their mothers. Nature. 2010 Jul 15;466(7304):334-8. doi: 10.1038/nature09199</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Reyes A, Haynes M, Hanson N, et al. Viruses in the faecal microbiota of monozygotic twins and their mothers. Nature. 2010 Jul 15;466(7304):334-8. doi: 10.1038/nature09199</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit11"><label>11</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Waller AS, Yamada T, Kristensen DM, et al. Classification and quantification of bacteriophage taxa in human gut metagenomes. ISME J. 2014 Jul;8(7):1391-402. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2014.30</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Waller AS, Yamada T, Kristensen DM, et al. Classification and quantification of bacteriophage taxa in human gut metagenomes. ISME J. 2014 Jul;8(7):1391-402. doi: 10.1038/ismej.2014.30</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit12"><label>12</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chen T, Long W, Zhang C, et al. Fiber-utilizing capacity varies in Prevotella-versus Bacteroides-dominated gut microbiota. Sci Rep. 2017 Jun 1;7(1):2594. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-02995-4</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chen T, Long W, Zhang C, et al. Fiber-utilizing capacity varies in Prevotella-versus Bacteroides-dominated gut microbiota. Sci Rep. 2017 Jun 1;7(1):2594. doi: 10.1038/s41598-017-02995-4</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit13"><label>13</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Chen J, Chia N, Kalari KR, et al. Multiple sclerosis patients have a distinct gut microbiota compared to healthy controls. Sci Rep. 2016 Jun 27;6:28484. doi: 10.1038/srep28484</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Chen J, Chia N, Kalari KR, et al. Multiple sclerosis patients have a distinct gut microbiota compared to healthy controls. Sci Rep. 2016 Jun 27;6:28484. doi: 10.1038/srep28484</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit14"><label>14</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Tremlett H, Fadrosh DW, Faruqi AA, et al; US Network of Pediatric MS Centers. Gut microbiota in early pediatric multiple sclerosis: a case-control study. Eur J Neurol. 2016 Aug;23(8):1308-21. doi: 10.1111/ene.13026</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Tremlett H, Fadrosh DW, Faruqi AA, et al; US Network of Pediatric MS Centers. Gut microbiota in early pediatric multiple sclerosis: a case-control study. Eur J Neurol. 2016 Aug;23(8):1308-21. doi: 10.1111/ene.13026</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit15"><label>15</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Jiang H, Ling Z, Zhang Y, et al. Altered fecal microbiota composition in patients with major depressive disorder. Brain Behav Immun. 2015;48:186-94. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2015.03.016</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Jiang H, Ling Z, Zhang Y, et al. Altered fecal microbiota composition in patients with major depressive disorder. Brain Behav Immun. 2015;48:186-94. doi: 10.1016/j.bbi.2015.03.016</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit16"><label>16</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Polman CH, Reingold SC, Banwell B, et al. Diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: 2010 revisions to the McDonald criteria. Ann Neurol. 2011 Feb;69(2):292-302. doi: 10.1002/ana.22366</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Polman CH, Reingold SC, Banwell B, et al. Diagnostic criteria for multiple sclerosis: 2010 revisions to the McDonald criteria. Ann Neurol. 2011 Feb;69(2):292-302. doi: 10.1002/ana.22366</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit17"><label>17</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Thompson AJ, Banwell BL, Barkhof F, et al. Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: 2017 revisions of the McDonald criteria. Lancet Neurol. 2018 Feb;17(2):162-73. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30470-2</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Thompson AJ, Banwell BL, Barkhof F, et al. Diagnosis of multiple sclerosis: 2017 revisions of the McDonald criteria. Lancet Neurol. 2018 Feb;17(2):162-73. doi: 10.1016/S1474-4422(17)30470-2</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit18"><label>18</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kozhieva M, Naumova N, Alikina T, et al. Primary progressive multiple sclerosis in a Russian cohort: relationship with gut bacterial diversity. BMC Microbiol. 2019 Dec 30;19(1):309. doi: 10.1186/s12866-019-1685-2</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kozhieva M, Naumova N, Alikina T, et al. Primary progressive multiple sclerosis in a Russian cohort: relationship with gut bacterial diversity. BMC Microbiol. 2019 Dec 30;19(1):309. doi: 10.1186/s12866-019-1685-2</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit19"><label>19</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Kozhieva M, Naumova N, Alikina N, et al. The Core of Gut Life: Firmicutes Profile in Patients with Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis. Life (Basel). 2021 Jan;11(1):55. doi: 10.3390/life11010055</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Kozhieva M, Naumova N, Alikina N, et al. The Core of Gut Life: Firmicutes Profile in Patients with Relapsing-Remitting Multiple Sclerosis. Life (Basel). 2021 Jan;11(1):55. doi: 10.3390/life11010055</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit20"><label>20</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Бойко АН, Мельников МВ, Бойко ОВ и др. Исследование содержания маркеров микробиоты в цереброспинальной жидкости пациентов с рассеянным склерозом и радиологически изолированным синдромом. Неврология, нейропсихиатрия, психосоматика. 2021;13(1):27-30. doi: 10.14412/2074-2711-2021-1S-27-30</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Boyko AN, Melnikov MV, Boyko OV, et al. Microbiota markers level in the cerebrospinal fluid of patients with multiple sclerosis and radiologically isolated syndrome. Nevrologiya, neiropsikhiatriya, psikhosomatika = Neurology, Neuropsychiatry, Psychosomatics. 2021;13(1):27-30. (In Russ.) doi: 10.14412/2074-2711-2021-1S-27-30</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit21"><label>21</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Boziki MK, Kesidou E, Theotokis P, et al. Microbiome in MS; where are we, what we know and do not know. Brain Sci. 2020 Apr 14;10(4):234. doi: 10.3390/brainsci10040234</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Boziki MK, Kesidou E, Theotokis P, et al. Microbiome in MS; where are we, what we know and do not know. Brain Sci. 2020 Apr 14;10(4):234. doi: 10.3390/brainsci10040234</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref><ref id="cit22"><label>22</label><citation-alternatives><mixed-citation xml:lang="ru">Saresella M, Mendozzi L, Rossi V, et al. Immunological and Clinical Effect of Diet Modulation of the Gut Microbiome in Multiple Sclerosis Patients: A Pilot Study. Front Immunol. 2017 Oct 25;8:1391. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01391</mixed-citation><mixed-citation xml:lang="en">Saresella M, Mendozzi L, Rossi V, et al. Immunological and Clinical Effect of Diet Modulation of the Gut Microbiome in Multiple Sclerosis Patients: A Pilot Study. Front Immunol. 2017 Oct 25;8:1391. doi: 10.3389/fimmu.2017.01391</mixed-citation></citation-alternatives></ref></ref-list><fn-group><fn fn-type="conflict"><p>The authors declare that there are no conflicts of interest present.</p></fn></fn-group></back></article>
